LANGUAGE CHANGE REVISION

AO1 Select & apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant knowledge using appropriate terminology & coherent, accurate written expression	AO2 Demonstrate critical understanding of a range of concepts and issues related to the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using knowledge of linguistic approaches	AO3 Analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key constituents of language
Lexis and Semantics : ·         borrowed/loan words; a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language directly, without translation.(like ballet or baguette) ·         compounds ·         blends; like a consonant cluster ·         acronyms ·         eponyms/proprietary words;The name of a real or fictitious person whose name has, or is thought to have, given rise to the name of a particular item. ·         conversion/grammatical shift ·         pejoration/amelioration;The upgrading or elevation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a negative sense develops a positive one. Also calledmelioration or elevation. Contrast with pejoration. ·         narrowing;The process by which a word's meaning becomes less general or inclusive than its earlier meaning. Also known as specialization. The opposite process is called broadening. ·         metaphor/hyperbole; a representation of something from a smaller picture, or saying something is something else as an exaggeration. Hyperbole = exaggeration ·         semantic shift;the evolution of word usage — usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. ·         archaisms/obsolete words;the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current. ·         Americanisms;a characteristic feature of American English Grammar: ·         syntax/word order;refers directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language. ·         sentence structure: use of coordination.;uses coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs (with appropriate punctuation), or punctuation to combine short independent clauses into a single sentence. Coordination implies the balance of elements that are of equal semantic value in the sentence.      subordination;uses subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns to transform independent clauses (main clauses or ideas) into dependent clauses (subordinate clauses or ideas). Subordinate clauses are subordinate to (and thus hold less semantic value than) the independent clause(s) to which they are linked. ·         dummy auxiliary ‘do’ used in negative and interrogative constructions ·         double negatives ·         inflections;the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood,voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case. ·         plurals ·         prepositions;grammatically distinct class of words whose most central members characteristically express spatial or temporal relations (such as the English words in, under, towards, before) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles (such as the English words of, for).[1] In that the primary function is relational, a preposition typically combines with another constituent (called its complement) to form a prepositional phrase, relating the complement to the context in which the phrase occurs. ·         pronouns – personal (thou, thee, one)relative- who, which, whom ·         verb tenses/irregular verbs/modal/auxilliary verbs ·         punctuation Pragmatics: ·         implied meanings/humour/shared knowledge/taboo language/formality/political correctness Graphology : ·         look at images/font and relate to context Discourse Structure: ·         written/spoken language and the conventions of such texts. Phonology : ·         alliteration, assonance, rhyme, onomatopoeia, accent/dialect, Received Pronunciation, assimilation, omission, Estuary English, dialect levelling, Black English Orthography: ·         spelling and problems with spelling	Background theories of: ·         gender ·         power ·         technology Standardisation and Codification of language: ·         Printing Press – William Caxton 1476 ·         Dictionaries – Dr Johnson’s dictionary 1755 ·         Robert Lowth’s ‘Introduction to English Grammar’ 1762 Prescriptive/Descriptive attitudes: ·         John Humphreys - Prescriptive ·         David Crystal - Descriptive ·         Stephen Fry - Descriptive ·         Jean Aitchison: Language Web – Damp Spoon/Crumbling Castle/Infectious Disease ·         Dennis Freeborn (phonology): incorectness view/ugliness view/impreciseness view ·         Phonology : ·         Great Vowel Shift ·         convergence ·         divergence ·         Labov’s ‘Martha’s Vineyard Study’ Informalisation Worldwide Englishes: ·         bidialectalism Causes of language change: ·         history and Invasions ·         changing personal and social identity ·         influence of social groups ·         changing attitudes ·         social trends ·         new technologies ·         intellectual activities	·         Genre ·         Audience ·         Subject ·         Purpose ·         Who is the text producer/ receiver ·         What are the expectations of the text receiver?